By Richard Green

August 2004 Times 

Author's Note:  In last month’s Times, I wrote that James Adair's book, History of American Indians, was an indispensable source of information for those wanting to learn about the tribe’s culture in the turbulent 18th century. In addition to describing how Adair came to write the book and publish it in 1775, I summarized three important essays on Adair's life, especially the parts associated with the Chickasaws, with whom he lived on and off from 1744-68. Those essays as well as Adair’s book are available in the tribal library in Ada. The book also is in the collection of most university libraries, or may be obtained through the Inter-Library Loan program.  All editions of Adair’s book are out of print, but a new edition will be published by the University of Alabama Press this fall.

 In 1744, the English trader James Adair, then in his early 30s, guided a packtrain of trade goods into the Chickasaw Nation and began both a remarkable business and friendly relationship with the tribe that lasted more than two decades. Though he traded with other tribes, and was often en route between English trading depots such as Charles Town and Augusta and villages in the Indian nations, he spent more time by choice with the Chickasaws.

When he departed from “my dear old friends” the Chickasaws for the last time in 1768, he took with him a book-length manuscript that he was determined to see published. In more than 500 pages of manuscript, Adair wrote what he had witnessed and been told throughout his long career as a trader and English agent. Because he favored the Chickasaws for many reasons, not least of which was their loyalty to the English, his manuscript contained more about their culture than any other tribe.

He came into the Chickasaw country with a decade of experience trading with the Cherokees and Catawbas. Near the end of that time, he met a band of Chickasaws who were living near Fort Moore, on the Savannah River, which divides South Carolina from Georgia. In 1723, the Chickasaw Nation was invited by the Carolina governor to relocate to this area. A band of about 80 under the leadership of Squirrel King (a title, not a name) had accepted and, through a mutually beneficial arrangement, been living there ever since.

From these eastern Chickasaws, Adair learned to speak their language and probably received something like a verbal letter of introduction to their brothers and sisters in the homeland area in what is now modern-day Tupelo, Mississippi. Adair wanted to establish a trading relationship with the Chickasaws to make a living and serve British interests. So he set off on his initial journey in 1744, traveling on the same trail that had been taken by predecessors such as Thomas Welch, the first known trader to journey to the Chickasaws at least a half century before.

It was not only an arduous trip, but also a dangerous one. The French had learned the hard way in the 1730s that their enemy, the Chickasaws, could not be exterminated through a decisive battle. Though extermination was still the French goal in the 1740s, it would be achieved through attrition, as the Chickasaws were a relatively small tribe living in and defending an area of about four square miles. The French and their Indian allies isolated and cut the Chickasaws off, killed and captured women in the fields and members of small hunting groups. Raiding parties also destroyed property, burned crops and intercepted English packtrains bound for the Chickasaws. According to the strategy, the Chickasaws eventually would run out of food and supplies and be forced to leave their homeland or die trying to defend it.

This was a long-term strategy, which was plied relentlessly by the French and their Indian allies (principally the Choctaws) throughout most of Adair’s association with the tribe. Knowing this history puts Adair’s book in perspective for modern readers, and sets the stage for understanding the character of the Chickasaw people, and how traits such as extraordinary self-discipline, fierceness in battle and a passion for liberty contributed to their survival.
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 But before I proceed, I must deal with the problem faced by most reviewers of Adair’s book. One of its biggest shortcomings is that the author often did not identify the tribe whose practice or custom he was describing. This is particularly true in the last of the book’s three major sections, “General Observations on the North American Indians,” which is handled topically.  So for example, he writes in detail about a three-day love ritual, and the celebrants are “Indians.” Is this laziness or indifference on Adair’s part? Could Indians be a generic term for the familiar Southeastern tribes? 

Or was it understood, at least by him, that “Indians” referred to his favorite Indians, the Chickasaws? There are reasons to think this may be true beyond the bond that existed between him and a generation of Chickasaws. Of the Indian languages he was familiar with, he seemed to be fluent only in Chickasaw, which would greatly facilitate his understanding of Chickasaw culture. He used Chickasaw words and phrases in several passages of the book with references to “Indians.”  Furthermore, the two other major sections of Adair’s book contain more references to Chikkasah (his spelling of Chickasaw) than to other tribes. References to Chikkasah abound even in the segments titled Choctaw, Muskoghe, Cherokee and Catawba.

Perhaps most importantly in this essay on how the Chickasaws’ character helped them to survive their enemy’s extermination plan, we know that with respect to Adair’s references to war and warriors, he had far more experience with the Chickasaws. He not only observed their meticulous, ritualistic preparation for battle, but at times he fought alongside the warriors. He did this to protect himself and his wares and to defend their homeland.
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Adair wrote that all tribal people are equal, in terms of personal liberty. Recognition was based on merit, by demonstrating superior “virtue, oratory or prowess.” Such demonstrations, however, did not stem from a yearning for acclaim, but for the honor of living and dying in defense of their country. “Every warrior holds his honour, and the love of his country, in so high esteem, that he prefers it to life, and will suffer the most exquisite tortures rather than renounce it,” Adair wrote.

Headmen rewarded warriors with a title reflecting their exploits. But the warrior’s fulfillment came by exacting blood revenge for the death of one of their own, or inspiring younger warriors to similar acts of valor in seeking revenge or protecting the tribe. Warriors never fought for hire, but for “wreathes of swan feathers,” apparently a symbol of service to the nation. As Adair quoted the great war chief Payamataha, addressing a delegation of Muskohge (Creek), “we shall certainly live and die, in such a manner as not to sully the ancient character of our warlike fore-fathers.” That explains, Adair wrote, why the warriors never deserted in battle.

War was most often waged to avenge the killing of a tribal member. But even while the blood of the would-be avengers ran hot, they understood that a religious protocol had to be observed, beginning with a “war captain” publicly announcing his intent to pursue or invade the enemy. With red and black flags (symbolizing blood and death) draped around his winter house, the captain circled it three times while beating a drum.

Then, selected warriors and family members of the murdered Chickasaw armed themselves and entered the captain’s circular winter house. There, over the next three days and nights, they purified themselves for spiritual protection by drinking a specially consecrated porridge of roots and herbs. During this three-day fast, older warriors watched the younger warriors carefully, to insure that they would not weaken and eat food, thus possibly incurring the wrath of “the sacred fire” against the avengers.

If this regimen was not demanding enough, they were to take no sustenance at all and remain standing throughout the day-light hours. While on the trail, they continued the fast and refrained from resting during the day. The more rigidly they observed these strictures, they believed, the more likely the diety was to grant them success.

After the three days of fast and purification in the winter house, the warriors set off, firing their guns and war-whooping, following the lead warrior who was carrying the sacred ark of war. (Apparently the content of the ark was never revealed to Adair.) As they marched single file, the leader started them singing a song only performed on that occasion. The song was punctuated by intermittent war whoops from all of the warriors. After entering woods and for the remainder of the trek toward their enemy, everyone fell silent, listening and watching intently for signs of danger.

Adair wrote that he tried to persuade some war parties that he accompanied to keep up their strength by taking food and water, but none would risk becoming polluted. They continued their quest unless someone’s dreams alerted them otherwise. Since they interpreted dreams as a divine message, they were bound to return home at once. “I have known a whole company who set out for war, to return in small parties, and sometimes by single persons, and be applauded by the united voice of the people,” Adair wrote.

When the war party, usually numbering 20 to 40, reached the enemy’s hunting grounds, the warriors separated but stayed within earshot by imitating animal sounds. If they discovered the enemy’s tracks, they alerted one another to draw closer together. They used considerable stealth, crawling on the ground like “wild cats,” hoping for a sneak attack. Just prior to the attack, they “stripped themselves naked, and painted their faces and breast red as blood, intermingled with black streaks.”
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When the leaders simultaneously blow small whistles, the “hot work begins,” Adair wrote. The battle is a cacophony of war whooping and guns exploding, hickory bows twanging, barbed arrows whizzing, and javelins and tomahawks seeking out their unlucky targets. After the initial attack, the Chickasaws pursue any of the retreating enemy who are injured or unarmed and either kill or capture them. Some who are killed may be dismembered in addition to being scalped. These trophies will be displayed back in their village.

Since the Chickasaws don’t believe that humans are born in a state of war, they believe that shedding human blood makes them impure. That is a reason why battles never last long and why warriors try to avoid subsequent battles before reaching home. There they continue fasting and are sanctified by the war chief. Too much impurity, especially on the part of the leader, could lead to casualties. If several warriors die in battle, the leader is thought to be out of divine favor, and could be demoted or even put to death.

Nearing their village, they march behind the leader in single file, a few yards apart. If successful, they stage a noisy return, guns firing, whooping and loudly vilifying their prisoners. Later, they make a sacrifice of gratitude to the diety in the ark. But if they failed or even one of their warriors was killed, they return in silence because they believe through “some neglect of duty, they are impure.” They believe that the divinity in the ark will always bless the more religious warriors.
The returning warriors camp near the town in the designated place and in the middle of their campsite they plant a red-painted war pole to which they secure the prisoners. The next day, the younger captives may or may not be spared. But to atone for the blood they have doubtless spilled over the years, the older prisoners endure a prescribed torture with fire until they succumb. Adair’s vivid description of this ceremony leaves little to the imagination.

Finally, to the accompaniment of rejoicing, chanting women and warriors singing and whooping, the scalps of the deceased are cut into pieces and tied to pine branches. These are placed on top of the circular winter houses of the now avenged families. By this religious act of vengeance, the ghosts of the slain Chickasaws are released to go to another place of rest.

The tribe dances for three days and nights, thanking “Yo He Wah” for their victory. In the dance, they demonstrate the wild-cat movements they made in crawling up on the enemy. “Now,” wrote Adair, “they lift up one foot, then put it down slowly on tip-toe in a bent posture looking sharply every way. Then they proceed from tree to tree, till the enemy is defeated.”